A Report On Leadership Principles Education Essay

Leadership in organizational groups or work squads has become one of the most popular and quickly turning countries of leading theory and research. Research on the effectivity of organizational squads has suggested that the usage of squads has led to greater productiveness, more effectual usage of resources, better determinations and job resolution, better-quality merchandises and services, and greater invention and creativeness ( Parker, 1990 ) . Surveies besides suggest that it is indispensable to understand the function of leading within squads to guarantee squad success and to avoid squad failure. To guarantee squad success, squad leaders need to develop an effectual squad leading scheme. Therefore, the study will explicate, discuss and critically measure the statement made by Burke and Cooper ( 2006 ) , that ‘without sing the cardinal eventualities of administration context, team support systems, and squad type, squad leaders will non hold the information they need to develop an effectual squad leading scheme ‘ . The study support Burke and Cooper ‘s ( 2006 ) position by concentrating on assisting squad leaders to better their effectivity by placing specific squad leading schemes that are contingent upon administration context factors, support systems, and type of squad being led. The three maps most critical to team public presentation include attempt, scheme and KSAs ( Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities ) ( Hackman and Wageman, 2005 ) . They suggested that squad leaders must concentrate on behavioral attacks that will hold the greatest impact on each of these three maps and so based on organizational context, squad support, and squad type, squad leaders decide on which map to concentrate. If this procedure is executed successfully, it will assist team leader to develop an effectual squad leading scheme. However, the strategic eventuality theoretical account of squad leading developed in this study focuses on leader behavior guided by squad map and undertaking public presentation and therefore fails to recognize the person, squad personality or interpersonal issues. â€Å"Indeed, we would reason that effectual leading processes represent possibly the most critical factor in the success of organizational teams† ( Zaccaro, Rittman, & A ; Marks, 2001, p. 452 ) . Conversely, uneffective leading frequently is seen as the primary ground squads fail ( Stewart & A ; Manz, 1995, p. 748 ) . Therefore, effectual leading processes such as, a squad leader ‘s mental theoretical accounts and leading attack to reap the lessons of experience to spread out and intensify his or her cognition base and accomplishment set are besides of import to develop effectual leading scheme ( Salas, Kosarzycki, Tannenbaum & A ; Carnegie, 2004 ) .Effective Team Leadership StrategyKatzenbach and Smith ( 19 93 ) , have argued for separating work groups and work squads, and have come to a definition that work squads is â€Å"a little figure of people with complementary accomplishments who are committed to a common intent, public presentation ends, and attack for which they hold themselves reciprocally accountable† . To back up Burke and Cooper ‘s statement, we have focussed on a functional attack to leading, stated by Hackman and Wageman ( 2005 ) : â€Å"if a leader manages, by whatever agencies, to guarantee that all maps critical to group public presentation are taken attention of, the leader has done his or her occupation well† ( p. 273 ) .A Strategic Contingency Model of Team LeadershipThe strategic eventuality theoretical account of team leading helps in placing the appropriate squad maps on which to concentrate should be contingent on administration context, team support systems, and squad type. These cardinal eventualities will besides assist in developing an effectual squad leading scheme. Besides, the theoretical account provides a mental route map to assist the squad leader diagnose squad jobs and take appropriate strategic class of action to rectify these jobs and conveying out squad effectivity.Team EffectivenessTeam effectivity can associate to the coveted result of squ ad work. There are two critical maps of squad effectivity: Performance which entails the successful bringing of an end product ( that is merchandises, determinations, public presentation events, services, or information ) and Viability which means the hereafter oriented and includes continuity, committedness, coherence and capableness to carry through shared intent ( Halfhill and Huff, 2004 ) .Team FunctionsHarmonizing to Hackman and Morris ( 1975 ) , the maps that are most critical to team effectiveness autumn into three classs: Therefore, Team leaders must concentrate on behavioral attacks that will hold the greatest impact on each of these three maps. Teams who are able to set forth the appropriate sum of attempt, formulate schemes in line with cardinal undertaking demands, and whose squad members possess sufficient KSAs will probably to execute more efficaciously compared to those who are non. However, the theoretical account shows that there are organizational context factors, squad support system and squad type that may impact the relevancy and impact of attempt, scheme and KSAs. We will therefore explain and discourse the three key eventualities which help the squad leader to take appropriate strategic determinations on which squad maps to concentrate in order to accomplish squad effectivity.Administration ContextOrganisation context factors include elements such as civilization, undertaking design and engineering, liberty, public presentation feedback, wagess, preparation and physical environment ( Sandstorm et.al, 1990 ) . The theoretical account has concentrated on merely three factors: Task design which involves the grade to which squad undertakings are complex, unpredictable, and dynamic versus simple, predictable and stable. Autonomy is defined as the grade to which squad leaders ‘ control how their squads approach work. Input control refers to the control over work inputs utilised by squads to execute undertakings. Each of these three contextual elements may restrain or better the impact of the squad maps on effectivity. The benefit of squad leader concentrating on:Effort is reasonable merely if squad leaders have a important degree of control over work inputs ( for illustration, supply, stuff, resources etc, )Scheme is reasonable merely if they have some grade of liberty in how they do their work. Empowerment, following a theory Y attack and a flexible or organic organizational construction are indispensable to accomplish squad effectivity.KSAs make sense merely if the squad ‘s undertaking is complex and unpredictable.The peculiar mix of contextual factors present in an administration indicates the importance of squad leaders concentrating on one, some, or all of the critical squad maps. For illustration, see a shop stock list squad ( SIT ) working in retail merchant such as Wal-Mart, Best-Buy and so on. This squad ‘s primary duties include unloading bringing trucks, cataloguing st ock list as it is unloaded, and forming, hive awaying and puting stock list. SITs do non command what is delivered or when it is delivered ( no control over work input ) , as it is determined by stock list handiness, client demand, and bringing logistics. Therefore, SIT leaders would derive small advantage by concentrating on work inputs. On the other manus, most SITs have flexibleness ( that is autonomy ) sing the scheme they employ in carry throughing their occupation one time inventory arrives at the shops. Therefore, SITs leaders would lend more to increasing squad effectivity by concentrating on scheme. Therefore, squad leaders must take duty for naming their administration ‘s contextual matrix to assist them place the appropriate leading scheme to prosecute. Regardless of whether administration context factors facilitate or restrain specific squad maps, current squad support systems will play an of import function in squad effectivity ( Sundstorm, 1999 ) .Team Support SystemsIn order to maximize effectivity, squads need organizational support from several cardinal systems. Sundstorm et Al, ( 1999 ) , place these systems as a â€Å"structure compatible with squad work ; leaders ‘ functions that surrogate cooperation ; complementary systems for choice, measuring, information, preparation and compensation ; and installations with communicating engineering that facilitates needed interaction within and among teams† p.4. Sundstorm and co-workers ( 1999 ) besides argue that support systems must be implemented and besides run into the demands of specific types of squads . Therefore, the direction challenge is to plan, implement, and maintain organizational support systems to run into the demands of the type of squad, with flexibleness to suit each team‘s alone characteristics. There are four indispensable support systems necessary for advancing squad effectivity.1. Team StaffingTeam staffing is an of import facet to lend to effectiveness because it ensures that squad members have an appropriate blend of experience, cognition, accomplishments, and abilities. In add-on, it besides entails if the administration ‘s human resource section is executing their maps, such as enlisting and choice efficaciously. A squad leader may be recognised for his or her relationship-oriented and tactful leading manner, but if his or her squad members lack of experience, or KSAs in working with squads to execute the undertaking, the squad will decidedly non be successful. For illustration, some new merchandise development undertaking squads require squad members with expertness in selling, gross revenues, technology, fabrication and merchandise development ( Sarin and Mahajan, 2001 ) . Those responsible for staffing must concentrate on making a squad with complementary accomplishments in each of those countries, as opposed to merely staffing the squad with five intelligent, separately effectual people. During the choice procedure, administrations should execute a teamwork accomplishment appraisal and Belbin squad roles trial to do certain that squad members have the KSAs to work in squads. However, if squad staffing is non possible due to the type of squad or any other factors, other support systems such as preparation can make full KSA spreads among team members.2. TrainingTeam members who require extra cognition and accomplishments are frequently exposed to developing. In fact, squad preparation is widely used ( Bassi, Cheney, and Van Buren, 1997 ) and has benefited administrations following team-based constructions such as Motorola AND Xerox ( Gronstedt, 1996 ; Henkoff, 1993, severally ) . Stevens and Yarish ( 1999 ) analysed the usage of squad preparation during the execution of squads at a Cu refinery and they have found that the preparation support system at the refinery has created multiple preparation faculties around different aspects of teamwork which are chiefly: Therefore, developing support system is besides really of import in advancing squad effectivity. For case, cross-training provides squad members a greater apprehension of how their undertakings are inter-reliant, lifting the squad ‘s flexibleness and bettering response clip.3. Measurement and FeedbackTeam leaders must cognize how their squads are making in order to supply the support they need for betterment or continued success. Furthermore, Pritchard and Watson ( 1991 ) have demonstrated in their research that squad effectivity additions when squad members are given feedback on nonsubjective steps of their public presentation. Measurement systems non merely supply information for squad to better public presentation, they besides provide touchable illustrations of success in which squads can take pride. This motivational facet of feedback is really of import and should be considered when measuring and feedback are designed. Team leaders must besides make up one's mind what feedback is most relevant to their squad based on concern scheme and squad motive. Seasonably and proper delivered feedback can explicate the differentiation between a squad that conceals errors and a squad that observes errors as chances. Besides, squad leaders will increase their impact on overall effectivity when they link team public presentation to wagess.4. WagessAdministrations with team-based wages systems are far more prepared to back up squad effectivity. Depending on their place within the administration, squad leaders may or may non hold influence sing the wages construction used by their administration. However, squad leaders may hold discretion sing fillips and other inducements. Wagess system should dwell of inducements that the squad value ( expectancy theory ) in order to accomplish squad public presentation and effectivity. Similar to staffing, preparation, and measuring and feedback, honor support system should be tailored to specific types of squads ( Sundstorm, 1999 ) .Team TypeThe 3rd eventuality that squad leaders must see when developing their leading scheme is recognizing the kineticss of the type of squad they led. Different squads, based on their primary undertakings and duties, interact otherwise with the three administration context variables ( undertaking design, liberty, input control ) , and four squad support systems ( staffing, preparation, measurement/feedback, and wagess ) . Sundstorm et Al. ( 2000 ) have identified six types of work squads: For illustration, in a scenario where a direction squad ‘s undertaking are extremely complex and it has a strong staffing support map, concentrating on squad member KSAs would probably lend significantly to team effectivity. Therefore, the cardinal leading challenge is the uninterrupted procedure of measuring the administration context, team support systems and squad type in order to find the effectual squad maps.Discussion and Critical AnalysisLarson and LaFasto ( 1989 ) studied real-life successful squads and found that regardless of the type of squad, eight features were systematically associated with squad excellence, therefore, harmonizing to them, effectual squad leading scheme does non depend on types of squad as all squads have those eight features in common. Furthermore, the information receive from administration context, squad support system and squad type are extremely complex, that they do non supply easy replies to hard determinations for the leader. Again due to its high complexness, the waies for leading preparation are obscure, complex, and slightly overpowering. The long list of squad leading accomplishments makes it hard to cognize where to get down ( Peter G. Northouse, 2007 ) . The strategic eventuality theoretical account of squad leading focuses on leading behavior guided by squad maps and undertaking public presentation. However, the theoretical account fails to see the person and squad personality or interpersonal issues every bit good as the leading manner and accomplishments as these besides of import to develop effectual leading scheme.Individual and Team Personality or Interpersonal issuesEffective squad leading is based on leading manner and the ability of the leader to turn to the multiple interpersonal demands that exist in squad scenes ( Burke Cooper 2006 ) . Therefore, to develop effectual squad leading scheme, a squad leader must guarantee that single squad members are comfy with themselves. Merely after accomplishing that phase, a squad leader can travel to the following degree interpersonal. At the interpersonal degree, a squad leader needs to understand and work out interpersonal issues within the squad. Interpersonal issues may include for illustration, squad personality and self-importance ; squad members are alone persons with different demands and personalities. Therefore, the squad leader needs to develop effectual schemes, for illustration, strong leading manner, and good communicating system to work out those interpersonal jobs so as to accomplish squad effectivity. John Adair ( 2003 ) in his three interconnected circle theoretical account indicates that the wide maps of strategic leading are Task, Team and Individual. Nevertheless, the strategic eventuality theoretical account of squad leading has concentrated on three squad maps related to task public presentation, non including the person. Besides, it is merely after accomplishing the two phases ( single and interpersonal degree ) that squad leaders will achieve synergism and develop effectual squad leading scheme.Leadership Approach: Style, Preferences and SkillsTeam leading can be accomplished in many different ways, depending in portion on the leader ‘s ain manner, penchants, and accomplishments. The fact that single differences among squad leaders are irrelevant to their leading effectivity ( Salas, Kosarzycki, Tannenbaum & A ; Carnegie, 2004 ) is misdirecting. To the contrary, the quality of the squad leading provided depends to a great extent on: ( a ) the truth and completeness of the leader ‘s mental theoretical account of what it takes to assist a squad win ; ( B ) the leader ‘s accomplishment in put to deathing the behavior required by his or her mental theoretical account ; and ( degree Celsius ) the leader ‘s ability to garner the lessons of experience to spread out and intensify his or her cognition base and accomplishment set.Leaderships Mental ModelEffective squad public presentation begins with the leader ‘s mental theoretical account of the state of affairs that guides actions. That is, what factors most strongly impact how squads behave and what intercessions are most likely to assist them win ( Stockton, Morran & A ; Clark, 2004 ) . Leaders ‘ mental theoretical accounts about ever are of the input-process-output assortment, in that they specify the factors that causally shape the group interactions that so drive public presentation results ( Hackman, 1987, pp. 319-322 ) . An illustration would be a theoretical account that identifies homogeneousness of rank as causal of harmonious group interaction which, in bend, Fosters group productiveness.Leadership SkillsIt is non sufficient for those who lead work squads simply to hold a moderately complete and accurate leading theoretical account ; they besides need ample accomplishments in acting in c onformity with the dictates of their theoretical account ( Gist & A ; McDonald-Mann, 2000 ) . Two sorts of accomplishments are critical to effectual squad leading: diagnostic accomplishments and behavioral accomplishments.Diagnostic SkillsDiagnostic accomplishments means when the leader is in a place to craft intercessions that have a sensible opportunity of contracting the spread between the existent state of affairss to the ideal state of affairss ( McGrath, 1962, pp. 13-14 ) . Team leaders should hold the accomplishments to summarize the factors ‘what is go oning ‘ in the squad compared it to what the leader believes ‘should be go oning ‘ in the squad ( leaders mental theoretical account ) .Behavioural SkillsBehavioural accomplishments include: monitoring and control, feedback, preparation, training etc. Behavioural accomplishments are similar to Hackman and Walton ( 1986 ) , executing accomplishments, which means taking appropriate action to contract the spread between a squad ‘s present world and what could it be. The instruction of diagnostic and behavioral accomplishments is besides needfully personalized and for that ground, it is labour intensive, clip consuming, and expensive. But it is a critical ingredient in the mix that makes for effectual squad leading.Learning by ExperienceTo develop an effectual leading scheme, a squad leader should besides hold a good path record, experience and a solid attack to team leading. Leaderships learn from experience working from different squads, every bit good as learn from their failure and mistake ; the bigger the error, the greater the chances for the squad leaders to larn. Leading a squad good besides requires a considerable grade of emotional adulthood in covering with one ‘s ain and others ‘ anxiousnesss. Emotionally mature leaders are willing and able to travel toward anxiety-arousing provinces of personal businesss in the involvement of larning about them instead than traveling off to acquire anxiousnesss reduced every bit rapidly as possible. Emotional adulthood may be better viewed as a long-run developmental undertaking for a leader ‘s life than something that can be consistently taught. Such learning involves working on existent jobs in safe environments with the expressed encouragement and support of others who themselves besides are larning how to cover with emotions efficaciously.Leadership Style and PowerAppropriate leading manner and power are besides of import to develop an effectual squad scheme. Apart from the functional attack, eventuality theories, underscoring that a leader should be in a place to accommodate his/her behavior and take actions harmonizing to different state of affairs, and a transformational attack to leading, underscoring that squad leaders will animate and actuate their squad members by selling their vision and moving as a adept manager are besides really of import to develop team leading scheme. In add-on, doing usage of useful power is besides of import to develop an effectual squad leading scheme.Decision and RecommendationThe study has provided a balance position on the statement that Burke and Cooper ( 2006 ) made. It has supported the statement by explicating a strategic eventuality theoretical account of team leading. The theoretical account of leading allows squad leaders to recognize the kineticss of the type of squad they lead, organizational context factors, and support systems impacting their squad. Then, sing these eventualities, they must place the most appropriate strategic class of actions by concentrating on one, two or all the critical squad maps. However, the theoretical account focuses on leader behavior guided by squad map and undertaking public presentation. It fails to recognize the importance of the person, considered by John Adair to be one of the interconnected factors of strategic leading map. In add-on, squad leader demand to understand the interpersonal issues of squad members foremost in order to accomplish squad effectivity. The theoretical account besides focuses on functional attack and has ignored how eventuality theories and transformational theories are besides of import in developing effectual squad leading scheme. The theoretical account in add-on besides fails to recognize that the squad leaders ‘ behavior can besides be guided by their leading manner, using a mix ingredient of diagnostic and behavioral accomplishments, their coaching ability, good path record and experience. The theoretical accounts have besides emphasize on undertaking public presentation and did non demo the leaders ‘ mental theoretical account and emotional adulthood guide their behavior and actions every bit good as contribute to the viability component in accomplishing squad effectivity. Therefore, to develop an effectual squad leading scheme, the cardinal eventualities ; administration context, team support systems and squad type are of import. However, a squad leader should besides take into history the person, squad personality, leading accomplishments, manner, experience and mental theoretical accounts.Bibliography1. Adair J ( 1983 ) Effective Leadership, Pan Books 2. Burke R J and Cooper C L ( 2006 ) Inspiring leaders Routledge 3. Cohen, S. G. , Ledford, G. E. , Jr. , & A ; Spreitzer, G.M. ( 1996 ) . A prognostic theoretical account of self-managing work squad effectivity, Human Relations, 49, 643-676. 4. Davis-Sacks, M. L. ( 1990a ) . Credit analysis squad, in: J. R. Hackman ( Ed. ) , Groups That Work ( and Those That Do n't ) ( pp. 126-145 ) . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 5. Davis-Sacks, M. L. ( 1990b ) , the trailing squad. In: J. R. Hackman ( Ed. ) , Groups That Work ( and Those That Do n't ) ( pp. 157-170 ) . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 6. Decker, P. J. ( 1986 ) . Social larning theory and leading, Journal of Management Development, 5, 46-58. 7. Farris, G. F. , & A ; Lim, F. G. , Jr. ( 1969 ) . Effectss of public presentation on leading, coherence, influence, satisfaction, and subsequent public presentation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 53, 490-497. 8. Feldman, D. C. ( 1984 ) The development and enforcement of group norms, Academy of Management Review, 9 ( 1 ) : 47-53 9. Gersick, C. J. G. ( 1988 ) . Time and passage in work squads: Toward a new theoretical account of group development. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 9-41. 10. Gersick, C. J. G. , & A ; Hackman, J. R. ( 1990 ) . Accustomed modus operandis in task-performing squads. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 47, 65-97. 11. Gronstedt, A ( 1996 ) Integrated communications at America ‘s Leading entire quality direction corporations, Public Relation Review, 22 ( 1 ) :25-42 12. Hackman and Morris C G ( 1975 ) Group undertakings, group interaction processes, and group public presentation effectivity: A reappraisal and proposed integrating. In L.Berkowitz ( ed. ) Advances in experimental societal psychological science, vol 8, New York: Academy Press, pp.45-99 13. Hackman and Wageman, R. ( 2005 ) A theory of squad coaching, Academy Management reappraisal, 30 ( 2 ) : 296-87 14. Hackman, J. R. , & A ; Morris, C. G. ( 1975 ) . Group undertakings, group interaction procedure, and group public presentation effectivity: Are position and proposed integrating. In: L. Berkowitz ( Ed. ) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology ( Vol. 8, pp. 45-99 ) . New York: Academic Imperativeness 15. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.inc.com/resources/leadership/articles/20070101/musselwhite.html [ accessed day of the month: 7/04/2010 ] 16. J. Richard Hackman and Ruth Wageman ( 2005 ) , when and how Team Leaders affair, Research in Organizational Behaviour, Volume 26, 37-74 by Elsevier Ltd. 17. Northouse P G ( 2006 ) Leadership ; Theory and Practice, 4th ED. Sage Publications, Inc 18. Sundstorm, E. ( 1998 ) Challenges of back uping work effectivity, in E.Sundstorm ( ed. ) Supporting work squad effectiveness San Francicso, CA: Jossey- Bass 19. Wageman, R. ( 2001 ) how leaders foster self-managing squad effectivity. Organisation Science, 12 ( 5 ) :559-77 20. Yukl, G. ( 1989 ) Managerial Leadership: A reappraisal of theory and research, diary of direction, 15 ( 2 ) :251-89 Page 2 of 17 Pamela Pandoo ( 28001685 )

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Sigmund freud - Essay Example The theory carries with it some weighty assumptions. One is that, we as individuals, know components of psyche, we know about the brain and also the nervous system. The second assumption is that we know how we act unconsciously. Hence psychoanalysis studies the suppression of some of the basic instincts (Freud 1937). According to Freud this suppression is constant and ongoing. Psychoanalysis may speed up the rates at which clients get better. It is also vital to note that, the nature of psychoanalysis creates a power imbalance, between the physician and the client. The id can be termed to be the most valuable part of the psyche. It usually contains urges that are extremely primitive. It is comprised of all the basic biological urges. A good example of some of this urges are hunger, thirst and sex. This part of psyche usually seeks pressure blindly. It does not care about the consequences; its aim is to seek instant gratification. Ego is developed from the id. It seeks to satisfy the id; it does so in a precise practical manner. It decides whether or not satisfaction is appropriate, and if favourable with the outside world. Commonly the ego is called self since it has the capability to look after itself. The superego is the third portion of the psyche; it develops with maturity. It has the sole responsibility of deeming the person’s actions good or bad. For Freud, there is a constant conflict between demands of the instincts and the demands of the society (Freud 1937). This can be caused by some of the impulses that may be hidden or even denied for lengths of time. However, this demands, in one way or another, reasserts themselves. The inner conflict is usually unknown and hence, it appears in thoughts and deeds that appear to be irrational. Psychologists that use psychoanalysis often see their patient’s problems as rooted in the unconscious part of

Service Line Development Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Service Line Development - Term Paper Example Self paying patients have increased from 5 to 8%. These changes have been accompanied by a reduction in revenue from $461.5 million to $427 million – a 7.5% decline. This decline has led to a decline in the hospital’s profit margin from $23.075 million to a negative of $1.495 million – a decline of 106.5%. This decline in revenue appears to have been initiated by the loss of the Obstetrics program and the erosion of general surgery volumes. The number of discharges, patient days, ADC, Surgeries, OP visits and ED visits. The only increase is related to ALOS which increased from 4.0 to 4.3. Zuckerman et al (2002) noted that mandatory health maintenance organizations (HMO) programs have had a positive impact on both adults and children and has resulted in less dependence on emergency room for medical care. There is an increase in the use of preventative care. Zuckerman et al (2002) also pointed to differences in access between people enrolled in Medicaid managed car e and low-income privately insured people. This difference seems to have positively impacted the percentage of patients using Medicaid and Medicare while negatively impacting the percentage of patients using the facility who are insured. Gaynor and Haas-Wilson (1999, p. ... The memos and telephone conversations seem to be pointing towards the legislative mindset of reducing payments to hospitals. There are also changes in how physicians are reimbursed and this has implications for health care in the county. However, although everyone is affected Robert Holland who is not directly employed in the health sector appears to be the only person who knows how to impact the legislative changes to the health care policy. There is an urgent need for improvement in health care policies and the suggestion made by Robert Holland to the CEO – Morgan Reece of working more closely with the Hospital Political Action Committee in order to frame feedback to the legislators is a good one. A member of the hospital board - Dr. Joint, who does not work at the Trinity Community Hospital is concerned that Congress wants to either reduce reimbursement or keep it at the same level while opening the doors of medical facilities to millions. Dr. Joint indicates that the payme nt to physician is not keeping up with cost increases and so the hospital will not be able to recruit any new doctors. This seems to have been the problem when the Obstetrics service was discontinued at the hospital. There is obviously a shortage of doctors which can have crippling effects on health services. This will also turn people away from public health facilities as they will prefer to pay more for private services in order to ensure that they receive quality health care. It therefore means that those who cannot afford private care are the only ones who will visit the hospital. Currently, only some basic provisions can be dealt with in relation to

Is True Love Real or Just an Illusion Research Paper

Is True Love Real or Just an Illusion - Research Paper Example scientifically rigorous in their characterization of the concept, however they disagree on what constitutes love and to what extent the traditional concept of true love is the same today as it was in past generations. This essay considers these perspectives in regards to Raymond Carver’s short story and offers its own unique perspective on the concept of ‘true love’. Raymond Carver’s short story ‘What We Talk About, When We Talk about Love’ examines the concept of love from a number of angles. One such formulation is presented by Mel’s wife Terri. Terri describes a relationship she had with her former husband Ed who used to abuse her because he couldn’t gain total control over her. Later in the story Mel posits a different version of love wherein a senior citizen couple gets in a traffic accident and the husband is in despair because he is unable to turn his head to view his wife. While the story presents these concepts a different types of love, they actually function very similar in logically supporting their claims. These are examples where ‘true love’ is understood by its intensity of expression. That love is not a medical or scientific example, but is an intensity of feeling that is surfaces in things such as the example described. Throughout the conversation Nick and Laura remain passive participants and are in great part dominated by Mel. The story notes that Mel is a cardiologist -- that is, a doctor used to formulating medical prescriptions and categorizing human functions. It follows that he would be the most confident in overtly defining what ‘love is’. In a sense, Mel believes that love can be understood and defined through reason: love is passionate intensity; love is deep devotion, etc. When Nick and Laura respond to the question they nudge each other under the table and then Nick takes Laura’s hand and kisses it. This is an understanding of love that is not defined but felt. Nick and Laura are not able to define their

Analyse the scenario given and produce a report detailing your Essay

Analyse the scenario given and produce a report detailing your response to the below changes in business environment - Essay Example Keeping all these facts in mind the business environment on a macro level looks prosperous for the young entrepreneurs. The location of the business is at Seaford road which is a populous suburb of east Sussex with a population of over 23000 people and is home to educational institutions. Hence the key USP aligns with the local community aswell. Condition of The Business: The current cash flows of the StudentPizza Ltd are lower than what was estimated initially. The business has yet to return a turnover which was expected even after 5 months. Although the key point which they had identified while opening the business was quite valid and relevant that Students love pizza and keeping this in mind opening a restaurant with the target market as students was quite relevant. Working on their USP by attracting students and making it exclusive for students they have been able to retain students as their loyalist but have only managed to attract few customers from the locality. Also they are running out of investment and capital to run the business as the business has not returned profits as expected for 5 months. SWOT ANALYSIS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND STRATEGIES A detailed analysis of the business and its environment, strategies pertaining to them along with recommendations for executing these strategies is mentioned in detail in this section. Strategy Assessment: In order to asses, whether a particular organizational strategy is suitable for an organization it is important to conduct a SWOT analysis. The SWOT analysis points out the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the organization in question. To assess how effective an organizational strategy would be, it is very important to conduct a SWOT analysis. SWOT analysis is an overall strategic planning methodology. It is used to assess a strategy from the point of view of its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. It involves the business environment and the business objective of a particular pro ject and how internal and external factors will help achieve those objectives. The technique was developed by Albert Humphrey. He led a convention during his stay at Stanford University in the 1960s and the 1970s. He incorporated data from some Fortune500 companies. A SWOT analysis usually begins with clearly defined state and objectives. Strengths: In strengths it is checked which attributes of the company will help in achieving the desired objectives. The strengths of the company are many. It targets the student population for junk food and they tend to be the most willing consumers for the same. The initial investment in the idea isn’t much. The timings of the outlet are very lucrative and so is the location of the chain a very ideal one. Weaknesses: In weaknesses it is checked which attributes of the company will be harmful in achieving the objectives. The outlet faces stiff competition from other more established outlets. The sales continue to suffer and the promotional strategy is weak at best. Opportunities: What opportunities will work in favor of the desired objectives? There are various opportunities that can capitalized on by the firm. Firstly, it needs to come up with a more aggressive promotional strategy and reach out to all students. Capitalize on social media, come up with flyers, posters, ad games and various other ways to promote and attract customers. Secondly, negotiation with the suppliers to bring

Theory of Forms Essay Example for Free

Theory of Forms Essay Definition. What is Philosophy? There are a number of definitions of philosophy given by many thinkers and they vary according to their interests and orientations. Generally, philosophy is regarded as perhaps the most obstruse and abstract of all subjects that seems apart from ordinary life. Although quiet a number of people may think of it as a being remote from every normal interest, it may be inferred that all of us have some philosophical views, whether we are aware of it or not. Most often, the term appears vague for it has been a part of our conversations. Origin. The word â€Å"philosophy† is derived from the Greek â€Å"philia† meaning â€Å"love† and â€Å"sophia† meaning â€Å"wisdom† or â€Å"knowledge†. The literal definition of philosophy, therefore, is â€Å"love of wisdom†. In current popular usage, many different ideas are involved in the manner we use the term. In some cases, philosophy refers to an attitude toward certain activities. For instance, during election, we often hear some people say, we are voting for a certain candidate because we favour for his philosophy of government. In classes in philosophy, the most common question the teacher asks is what the philosophy of student is. The popular conception of philosophy, in spite of many ways we may use the term, is a complex intellectual undertaking. Regardless of the various ideas of the role of philosophy in one’s life, its importance cannot be overemphasized. Parent Science. Philosophy may be considered as the â€Å"parent science†, in that it has given birth to natural, physical, and social sciences. These disciplines continue to provide philosophy with an abundance of contemporary issues, questions, that are seemingly difficult to answer. Philosophy is both independent fro other disciplines and embedded in their foundations and on-going activities. Philosophy as a science. Philosophy has been defined as a science because it deals with the study of the processes governing thought and conduct. It investigates the principles and laws that regulate the universe and underlie all knowledge, which satisfies the requisites of scientific state of knowing. Science has been defined as a body of systematized knowledge derived from observation, study, and experiments carried out in order to determine the nature of principles of what is being studied. Its main concern is the discovery of truth. The difference between the two fields of knowledge lies in the scope and nature of their interest and their approach. While specific sciences deal particularly with restricted field, e. g. , chemistry, philosophy deals with all aspects of man’s experiences. The interest of science is limited to the physical world, while the concern of philosophy issues on justice, conscience, reason, the soul and the Supernatural Being. The science approach to any investigation is establishing and systematizing facts, principles, and methods through experiments and hypotheses, while the approach of philosophy in its object of study is encompassing. Science tends to eliminate the persona factor and values in the quest for objectivity, while philosophy is interested in human experiences, personal values and purposes. Science is primarily concerned with the nature of things as they are, while philosophy is interested not only in the real aspects but alos in their worth and meaning. The aim of science is to observe nature and to control processes, while philosophy criticizes, evaluates and integrates the various dimensions of human experience. Philosophy as a science carefully examines and criticizes the premises and conclusions of all sciences-physical, natural, and social. Some propositions have been made by the sciences which, when examined carefully, may be found too impossible to attain or to prove. Philosophy synthesizes and compares the assumptions and conclusions of the difficult findings of the different sciences when they appear to be contradictory. Philosophy harmonizes and brings the sciences together to complement and support one another. THREE MAJOR FIELDS OF PHILOSOPHY The three major fields of philosophy are: (1) epistemology, (2) metaphysics, and (3) axiology. Epistemology. Epistemology deals with the study of origin, structures, methods, nature, limit and veracity (truth, reliability, validity) of human knowledge. It also includes logic and a variety of linguistic concerns and the philosophy of science. The word â€Å"epistemology† is derived from the Greek word â€Å"episteme† which means â€Å"knowledge† and â€Å"logos† which means â€Å"the study of†. Epistemology as a theory of knowledge asks fundamental questions about knowledge in all its forms and applications of how it is formulated and expressed and communicated. It also looks into the role of sense experience and how knowledge is acquired. Metaphysics. Metaphysics deals with questions of reality-its nature, meaning and existence. The word â€Å"metaphysics† is derived from the Greek word â€Å"meta† which â€Å"beyond† and â€Å"physikon† which means â€Å"nature† from which is derived the word physics, the science whish deals with matter, energy, force, natural laws and processes. Metaphysics is also concerned about the nature mind, self and consciousness, the nature of religion, such as the existence of God, the destiny of the universe, and the immortality of the soul. Aside from the nature of reality and the universe, metaphysics examines time, space, cause and chance. Axiology. Axiology deals into the study of values. It analyzes the origin, types and characteristics, criteria and knowledge of values. It includes values of human conduct, the nature and justification of social structures and political systems and the nature of art and its meaning in human experience. THE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Philosophy has several branches which resulted from man’s philosophical speculations. Each branch endeavours to provide us with useful insights into certain realities. The following are the fundamental philosophical fields of study: 1. Ethics or moral philosophy. This is the philosophical study of the morality of human acts, the search for an understanding of the good life and the ultimate basis of what is good or bad. 2. Metaphysics or ontology. This is the philosophical quest for what reality is in the final analysis. It is the study of beings in general. 3. Theology/Theodicy. This is the philosophical inquiry into the existence of God. His nature and his relations to man and the rest of creation. 4. Philosophy of man. This is the philosophical search for a deeper understanding of what man is and what it means to be fully human. 5. Cosmology. This is the philosophical search for a deeper understanding of the material universe. 6. Political philosophy. This is the philosophical search for knowledge of the ultimate foundation of the state, its ideal form and its basic power. 7. Aesthetics. This is the search for a deeper understanding and knowledge of beauty. 8. Epistemology. This is the philosophical search for answers to the fundamental questions concerning the conditions of knowledge, its extent and limitations. deeper understanding 9. Logic. This is the philosophical science and art of correct inferential thinking and setting forth its conditions. 10. Psychology. This is the science that deals with the science of mind, mental state and processes. The philosophical concept â€Å"psychology† came from the Greek words â€Å"psyche† which means â€Å"soul†, â€Å"mind†, and â€Å"spirit†, and â€Å"logos† which means â€Å"the study of†. To the Greeks, psychology is the study of the soul. Part 2. THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE. THALES Thales was the first known philosopher, scientist and mathematician although his occupation was that of an engineer. He is believed to have been the teacher of Anaximander (611 BC 545 BC) and he was the first natural philosopher in the Milesian School. Thales first went to Egypt and thence introduced this study [geometry] into Greece. He discovered many propositions himself, and instructed his successors in the principles underlying many others, his method of attacking problems had greater generality in some cases and was more in the nature of simple inspection and observation in other cases. Certainly Thales was a figure of enormous prestige, being the only philosopher before Socrates to be among the Seven Sages. Plutarch, writing of these Seven Sages, says that: Thales was apparently the only one of these whose wisdom stepped, in speculation, beyond the limits of practical utility, the rest acquired the reputation of wisdom in politics. It is reported that Thales predicted an eclipse of the Sun in 585 BC. The cycle of about 19 years for eclipses of the Moon was well known at this time but the cycle for eclipses of the Sun was harder to spot since eclipses were visible at different places on Earth. Thaless prediction of the 585 BC eclipse was probably a guess based on the knowledge that an eclipse around that time was possible. The claims that Thales used the Babylonian saros, a cycle of length 18 years 10 days 8 hours, to predict the eclipse has been shown by Neugebauer to be highly unlikely since Neugebauer shows that the saros was an invention of Halley. Neugebauer wrote: there exists no cycle for solar eclipses visible at a given place: all modern cycles concern the earth as a whole. No Babylonian theory for predicting a solar eclipse existed at 600 BC, as one can see from the very unsatisfactory situation 400 years later, nor did the Babylonians ever develop any theory which took the influence of geographical latitude into account. ANAXIMANDER Anaximander (610 – c. 546 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus, a city of Ionia; Milet in modern Turkey. He belonged to the Milesian school and learned the teachings of his master Thales. He succeeded Thales and became the second master of that school where he counted Anaximenes and arguably, Pythagoras amongst his pupils. Anaximander was one of the earliest Greek thinkers at the start of the Axial Age, the period from approximately 700 BC to 200 BC, during which similarly revolutionary thinking appeared in China, India, Iran, the Near East, and Ancient Greece. He was an early proponent of science and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origins, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long. Like many thinkers of his time, Anaximanders contributions to philosophy relate to many disciplines. In astronomy, he tried to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the Earth. In physics, his postulation that the indefinite (or apeiron) was the source of all things led Greek philosophy to a new level of conceptual abstraction. His knowledge of geometry allowed him to introduce the gnomon in Greece. He created a map of the world that contributed greatly to the advancement of geography. He was also involved in the politics of Miletus and was sent as a leader to one of its colonies. Anaximander claimed that an indefinite (apeiron) principle gives rise to all natural phenomena. Anaximanders theories were influenced by the Greek mythical tradition, and by some ideas of Thales – the father of philosophy – as well as by observations made by older civilizations in the East (especially by the Babylonian astrologists). All these were elaborated rationally. The basic elements of nature (water, air, fire, earth) which the first Greek philosophers believed that constituted the universe represent in fact the primordial forces of previous thought. Their collision produced what the mythical tradition had called cosmic harmony. ANAXIMENES While his predecessors Thales and Anaximander proposed that the arche, the underlying material of the world, were water and the ambiguous substance apeiron, respectively, Anaximenes asserted that air was this primary substance of which all other things are made. While the choice of air may seem arbitrary, he based his conclusion on naturally observable phenomena in the process of rarefaction and condensation. When air condenses it becomes visible, as mist and then rain and other forms of precipitation, and as the condensed air cools Anaximenes supposed that it went on to form earth and ultimately stones. In contrast, water evaporates into air which ignites and produces flame when further rarefied. While other philosophers also recognized such transitions in states of matter, Anaximenes was the first to associate the quality pairs hot/dry and cold/wet with the density of a single material and add a quantitative dimension to the Milesian monistic system. The Origin of the Cosmos. Having concluded that everything in the world is composed of air, Anaximenes then used his theory to devise a scheme explaining the origins and nature of the earth as well as of the surrounding celestial bodies. Air felted to create the flat disk of the earth, which he said was table-like and behaved like a leaf floating on air. In keeping with the prevailing view of celestial bodies as balls of fire in the sky, Anaximenes proposed that the earth let out an exhalation of air that rarefied, ignited and became the stars. While the sun is similarly described as being aflame, it is not composed of rarefied air like the stars but rather of earth like the moon; its burning comes not from its composition but rather from its rapid motion. The moon and sun are likewise considered to be flat and floating on streams of air, and when the sun sets it does not pass under the earth but is merely obscured by higher parts of the earth as it circles around and becomes more distant; the motion of the sun and the other celestial bodies around the earth is likened by Anaximenes to the way that a cap may be turned around the head. PYTAGORAS (The Mathematical Basis of All Things) Across a span of water from Miletus, located in the Aegean Sea, was the small island of Samos, which was the birthplace of a truly extraordinary and wise man, Pythagoras. From the various scraps of information we have about him and those who were his followers, an incomplete but still fascinating picture of his new philosophic reflections emerges. Apparently dissatisfied with conditions not only on Samos but generally in Ionia during the tyrannical rule of the rich Polycrates, Pythagoras migrated to southern Italy and settled there in the prosperous Greek city of Crotone, where his active philosophic life is usually dated from 525 to 500 B. C. We are told by Aristotle that â€Å"the Pythagoreans devoted themselves to mathematics, they were the first to advance this study, and having been brought up in it they thought its principles were the principles of all things. . . In contrast to the Miletians, the Pythagoreans that things consist of numbers. Although, it is quite strange to say that everything consists of numbers, the strangeness, as well as the difficulty, of this doctrine is greatly overcome when we consider why Pythagoras became interested in numbers and what his conception of numbers was. Pythagoras became interested in Mathematics for what appear to be religious reasons. His originality could be said to consist in his conviction that the study of mathematics is the best purifier of the soul. He is, therefore, referred to as the founder of both of religious sect and the same time a school of mathematics. What gave rise to the Pythagorean sect was people’s yearning for a deeply spiritual religion that could provide the means for purifying the soul and for guaranteeing its immortality. Part 3. THE PROCESS OF THE UNIVERSE HERACLITUS Nature identified with fire. The Universality of change. The logos and Human Nature. Substance that holds everything is fire. Logos or universal reason. Fire is the process of change that which is fed into it becomes something else. Fire is not a random movement but God’s universal reason, the fire that is the unity holding everything together PARMENIDES Goddess. Logical method. What is, is and what is not, is not. A poem that reveals to him the plain truth and the deceptive beliefs of human beings A method that depends entirely on thought and not at all on experiment and observation only that can be which can be thought for. Thought exists for the sake of what is. Therefore, change is the confusion of appearance with reality and therefore change is simply an illusion. EMPEDOCLES Four elements. Love and strife. Earth, fire, air and water were considered as equally original. Love and strife, attraction and repulsion are two different forces at work in nature . Love binds things together and strife separate them. ANAXAGORAS Invisible particles that are the building blocks of nature. A miniscule particles that carry the blue print of everything else that distinguished the mind from matter. Matter is continuum, infinitely divisible and that, however, much it may be divided, each part will contain elements of everything else. Mind the cause of all things. Mind is the principle that gives matter its order. THE ATOMISTS Believed that everything in nature was made of tiny invisible particles or units called atoms Part 4. THE CONCEPT OF TRUTH KNOWLEDGE SOPHISTS’ CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE THE SOPHISTS The term sophist (sophistes) derives from the Greek words for wisdom (sophia) and wise (sophos). The term sophia could be used to describe disingenuous cleverness long before the rise of the sophistic movement. In the fifth century B. C. E. the term sophistes was still broadly applied to ‘wise men’, including poets such as Homer and Hesiod, the Seven Sages, the Ionian ‘physicists’ and a variety of seers and prophets. The narrower use of the term to refer to professional teachers of virtue or excellence (arete) became prevalent in the second half of the fifth century B. C. E. , although this should not be taken to imply the presence of a clear distinction between philosophers, such as Socrates, and sophists, such as Protagoras, Gorgias and Prodicus. This much is evident from Aristophanes’ play The Clouds (423 B. C. E.), in which Socrates is depicted as a sophist and Prodicus praised for his wisdom. 1. Sophists a. Protagoras. Protagoras of Abdera (c. 490-420 B. C. E. ) was the most prominent member of the sophistic movement and Plato reports he was the first to charge fees using that title (Protagoras, 349a). Despite his animus towards the sophists, Plato depicts Protagoras as quite a sympathetic and dignified figure. From a philosophical perspective, Protagoras is most famous for his relativistic account of truth – in particular the claim that ‘man is the measure of all things’ – and his agnosticism concerning the Gods. Plato suggests that Protagoras sought to differ his educational offering from that of other sophists, such as Hippias, by concentrating upon instruction in arete in the sense of political virtue rather than specialised studies such as astronomy and mathematics (Protagoras, 318e). b. Gorgias. Gorgias of Leontini (c. 485 – c. 390 B. C. E. ) is generally considered as a member of the sophistic movement, despite his disavowal of the capacity to teach arete (Meno, 96c). The major focus of Gorgias was rhetoric and given the importance of persuasive speaking to the sophistic education, and his acceptance of fees, it is appropriate to consider him alongside other famous sophists for present purposes. c. Antiphon. The biographical details surrounding Antiphon the sophist (c. 470-411 B. C. ) are unclear – one unresolved issue is whether he should be identified with Antiphon of Rhamnus (a statesman and teacher of rhetoric who was a member of the oligarchy which held power in Athens briefly in 411 B. C. E. ). However, since the publication of fragments from his On Truth in the early twentieth century he has been regarded as a major representative of the sophistic movement. d. Hippias. The exact dates for Hippias of Elis are unknown, but scholars generally assume that he lived during the same period as Protagoras. Whereas Plato’s depictions of Protagoras – and to a lesser extent Gorgias – indicate a modicum of respect, he presents Hippias as a comic figure who is obsessed with money, pompous and confused. Hippias is best known for his polymathy (DK 86A14). His areas of expertise seem to have included astronomy, grammar, history, mathematics, music, poetry, prose, rhetoric, painting and sculpture. Like Gorgias and Prodicus, he served as an ambassador for his home city. His work as a historian, which included compiling lists of Olympic victors, was invaluable to Thucydides and subsequent historians as it allowed for a more precise dating of past events. In mathematics he is attributed with the discovery of a curve – the quadratrix – used to trisect an angle. e. Prodicus. Prodicus of Ceos, who lived during roughly the same period as Protagoras and Hippias, is best known for his subtle distinctions between the meanings of words. He is thought to have written a treatise titled On the Correctness of Names. Prodicus’ epideictic speech, The Choice of Heracles, was singled out for praise by Xenophon (Memorabilia, II. 1. 21-34) and in addition to his private teaching he seems to have served as an ambassador for Ceos (the birthplace of Simonides) on several occasions. f. Thrasymachus. Thrasymachus was a well-known rhetorician in Athens in the latter part of the fifth century B. C. E. , but our only surviving record of his views is contained in Plato’s Cleitophon and Book One of The Republic. He is depicted as brash and aggressive, with views on the nature of justice that will be examined in section 3a. 2. Major Themes of Sophistic Thought a. Nature and Convention. The distinction between physis (nature) and nomos (custom, law, convention) was a central theme in Greek thought in the second half of the fifth century B. C. E. and is especially important for understanding the work of the sophists. Before turning to sophistic considerations of these concepts and the distinction between them, it is worth sketching the meaning of the Greek terms. The term nomos refers to a wide range of normative concepts extending from customs and conventions to positive law. It would be misleading to regard the term as referring only to arbitrary human conventions, as Heraclitus’ appeal to the distinction between human nomoi and the one divine nomos (DK 22B2 and 114) makes clear. The dichotomy between physis and nomos seems to have been something of a commonplace of sophistic thought and was appealed to by Protagoras and Hippias among others. Perhaps the most instructive sophistic account of the distinction, however, is found in Antiphon’s fragment On Truth. b. Relativism. The primary source on sophistic relativism about knowledge and/or truth is Protagoras’ famous ‘man is the measure’ statement. Interpretation of Protagoras’ thesis has always been a matter of controversy. Caution is needed in particular against the temptation to read modern epistemological concerns into Protagoras’ account and sophistic teaching on the relativity of truth more generally. A human being is the measure of all things, of those things that are, that they are, and of those things that are not, that they are not. There is near scholarly consensus that Protagoras is referring here to each human being as the measure of what is rather than ‘humankind’ as such, although the Greek term for ‘human’ –hoanthropos– certainly does not rule out the second interpretation. Plato’s Theaetetus (152a), however, suggests the first reading and I will assume its correctness here. On this reading we can regard Protagoras as asserting that if the wind, for example, feels (or seems) cold to me and feels (or seems) warm to you, then the wind is cold for me and is warm for you. c. Language and Reality. Understandably given their educational program, the sophists placed great emphasis upon the power of speech (logos). Logos is a notoriously difficult term to translate and can refer to thought and that about which we speak and think as well as rational speech or language. The sophists were interested in particular with the role of human discourse in the shaping of reality. 3. The Distinction Between Philosophy and Sophistry The distinction between philosophy and sophistry is in itself a difficult philosophical problem. The terms ‘philosopher’ and ‘sophist’ were disputed in the fifth and fourth century B. C. E. , the subject of contention between rival schools of thought. Histories of philosophy tend to begin with the Ionian ‘physicist’ Thales, but the presocratics referred to the activity they were engaged in as historia (inquiry) rather than philosophia and although it may have some validity as a historical projection, the notion that philosophy begins with Thales derives from the mid nineteenth century. It was Plato who first clearly and consistently refers to the activity of philosophia and much of what he has to say is best understood in terms of an explicit or implicit contrast with the rival schools of the sophists and Isocrates (who also claimed the title philosophia for his rhetorical educational program). SOCRATES Socratic Method Socrates was not a â€Å"philosopher,† nor yet a â€Å"teacher,† but rather an â€Å"educator,† having for his functionSocrates to rouse, persuade and rebuke (Plato, Apology). Hence, in examining his life’s work it is proper to ask, not What was his philosophy? but What was his theory, and what was his practice of education? It is true that he was brought to his theory of education by the study of previous philosophies, and that his practice led to the Platonic revival; but to attribute to him philosophy, except in that loose sense in which philosophy is ascribed to one who, denying the existence of such a thing, can give an account of his disbelief, is misleading and even erroneous. Socrates theory of education had for its basis a profound and consistent skepticism; that is to say, he not only rejected the conflicting theories of the physicists, of whom â€Å"some conceived existence as a unity, others as a plurality; some affirmed perpetual motion, others perpetual rest; some declared becoming and perishing to be universal, others altogether denied such things, â€Å"but also condemned, as a futile attempt to transcend the limitations of human intelligence their, pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. † That it was in this way that Socrates was brought to regard â€Å"dialectic,† â€Å"question and answer,† as the only admissible method of education is no matter of mere conjecture. In the review of theories of knowledge which has come down to us in Plato’s Theaetetus mention is made of certain â€Å"incomplete Protagoreans,† who held that, while all opinions are equally true, one opinion is better than another, and that the â€Å"wise man† is one who by his arguments causes good opinions to take the place of bad ones, thus reforming the soul of the individual or the laws of a state by a process similar to that of the physician or the farmer; and these â€Å"incomplete Protagoreans† are identified with Socrates and the Socratics by their insistence upon the characteristically Socratic distinction between disputation and dialectic, as well as by other familiar traits of Socratic converse. In fact, this passage becomes intelligible and significant if it is supposed to refer to the historical Socrates; and by teaching us to regard him as an â€Å"incomplete Protagorean† it supplies the link which connects his philosophical skepticism with his dialectical theory of education. It is no doubt possible that Socrates was unaware of the closeness of his relationship to Protagoras; but the fact, once stated, hardly admits of question. Knowledge and action Socrates teaches that a man must know how to choose the mean and avoid the extremes on either side, as far as possible. In education, Socrates asks us to consider the effect of either an exclusive devotion to gymnastics or an exclusive devotion to music. It either produced a temper of hardness and ferocity, (or) the other of softness and effeminacy. Having both qualities, he believed, produces harmony; i. e. , beauty and goodness. He additionally stresses the importance of mathematics in education for the understanding of beauty and truth. PLATO Theory of forms The Problems theory was meant to solve: (1) The Ethical Problem: How can humans live a fulfilling, happy life in a contingent, changing world where every thing they attach themselves to can be taken away? (2) The Problem of Permanence and Change: How can the world appear to be both permanent and changing? The world we perceive through the senses seems to be always changing. The world that we perceive through the mind, using our concepts, seems to be permanent and unchanging. Which is most real and why does it appear both ways? The general structure of the solution: Plato splits up existence into two realms: the material realm and the transcendent realm of forms. Humans have access to the realm of forms through the mind, through reason, given Platos theory of the subdivisions of the human soul. This gives them access to an unchanging world, invulnerable to the pains and changes of the material world. By detaching ourselves from the material world and our bodies and developing our ability to concern ourselves with the forms, we find a value which is not open to change or disintegration. This solves the first, ethical, problem. Splitting existence up into two realms also solves the problem of permanence and change. We perceive a different world, with different objects, through our mind than we do through the senses. It is the material world, perceived through the senses, that is changing. It is the realm of forms, perceived through the mind, that is permanent and immutable. It is this world that is more real; the world of change is merely an imperfect image of this world. The Forms: A form is an abstract property or quality. Take any property of an object; separate it from that object and consider it by itself, and you are contemplating a form. For example, if you separate the roundness of a basketball from its color, its weight, etc. and consider just roundness by itself, you are thinking of the form of roundness. Plato held that this property existed apart from the basketball, in a different mode of existence than the basketball. The form is not just the idea of roundness you have in your mind. It exists independently of the basketball and independently of whether someone thinks of it. All round objects, not just this basketball, participate or copy this same form of roundness. In order to see exactly what a form is and how it differs from a material object, we need to look at the first two of the properties that characterize the forms. The forms are transcendent. This means that they do not exist in space and time. A material object, a basketball, exists at a particular place at a particular time. A form, roundness, does not exist at any place or time. The forms exist, or subsist, in a different way. This is especially important because it explains why the forms are unchanging. A form such as roundness will never change; it does not even exist in time. It is the same at all times or places in which it might be instantiated. A form does not exist in space in that it can be instantiated in many places at once and need not be instantiated anywhere in order for the form to exist. The form of roundness can be found in many particular spatial locations, and even if all round objects were destroyed, the property of roundness would still exist. The forms are also pure. This means that they are pure properties separated from all other properties. A material object, such as a basketball, has many properties: roundness, ballness, orangeness, elasticity, etc. These are all put together to make up this individual basketball. A form is just one of these properties, existing by itself apart from space and time. Roundness is just pure roundness, without any other properties mixed in. The forms differ from material objects, then, in that they are transcendent and pure, while material objects are complex conglomerations of properties located in space and time. The forms are causes in two closely related ways: (1) The forms are the causes of all our knowledge of all objects. The forms contribute all order and intelligibility to objects. Since we can only know something insofar as it has some order or form, the forms are the source of the intelligibility of all material objects. (2) The forms are also the cause of the existence of all objects.

East is East Essay Example for Free

East is East Essay East is East is a play about family life set in Salford at the start of the 1970s. It focuses on the Khan family, specifically the children, who are coming to terms with their identity in a mixed race household dominated by an abusive father. In this assignment, I will explore how the conflicts and tension in the play are dramatically revealed through the use of humor. I will explore Act 1, Scene 1, and Act 2 Scenes 2, 4, and 5. Throughout these scenes I will look at the separate conflicts and tension concerning Abdul, George and Sajit. It is necessary to observe Georges behavior closely as his actions directly impact upon his family, especially his children. His character shows the crossing over of the two cultures. Abduls character shows the clash of the two cultures and how they both try to overcome the other. He is the voice which speaks for the views of the children. Of all the children, Sajits character most strongly embodies the conflicts and struggles of being trapped between two extremely different cultures. His trademark parka appears to symbolize his hidden inner feelings, since it is worn all throughout the play until his emotional breakthrough in Act 2, Scene 5 (further discussed later in this essay). The children of the family are aged between 12 23. Act 1, Scene 1, has an everyday family life theme to it, with the family in a typical atmosphere which they are nearly always in. This act is useful as it helps set the play and introduces the lifestyles of the characters: â€Å"The contrast of cultures should come out in the set dressing, wall paper, oil cloth, Islamic prayer stickers, a coffee table with a picture of the Taj Mahal, a Lazy Susan which is always full of washing. † (Act 1, Scene 1) we are aware of the atmosphere and theme from this which helps set the play. We can see the contrast by having a picture of the Taj Mahal and then a Lazy Susan. A Lazy Susan is heavy slang which can help elucidate the situation. However, when the dialogue starts, we are taken of the description of the set and are faced with a humorous situation which involves George chasing Sajit because he has not been circumcised: â€Å"GEORGE: I tell you stupy, why you no listen. Your son bloody got it (He indicates his crotch. ) here tickle-tackle. † (Act 1, Scene 1) It is quite important that George is raising an issue that his son has not been circumcised. This reflects his views and is the first sign that he is a very religious Muslim. George uses Pidgin English which is very funny and shows that he has taken parts of the Pakistani dialect and merged it with English. Also George uses euphemisms instead of explicit terms which make it amusing like stupy. There is almost a sense of Schadenfreude for the audience as George, who is usually violent in his control of the family, is struggling to speak fluently. This is funny as it makes it seem as if he is hanging somewhere in between the two cultures. Another stage direction shows Georges relationship with his wife: â€Å"George grins slightly, these arguments happen all the time, and this one has reached its point. † (Act 1, Scene 1) In this quotation, we can see the relationship George has with his wife and that he is a playful character. This is another image of George that the audience gets and they assume that this is Georges normal behaviour. In this scene there are not any visible conflicts between the characters. This scene does not appear to be particularly loaded, but then again it is only the beginning of the play. This changes as we begin to slowly find out. In Act 2, Scene 2, the cross-cultural conflicts created by the tension slowly built throughout the play up to this point is finally resolved. Sajit is opening up to his older brother, Abdul, and Abdul is seeing Sajit in a new light. Sajit to him was always the dotty child who never took off his coat. The symbolism of Sajits coat is like his protection and sanctuary to get away from all of the harsh treatment and bad feelings that he receives. In Act 2, Scene 5, more is revealed about the symbolism of Sajits coat. After their talk Abdul wishes he had a parka to get away from all the conflicts, living up to his fathers expectations and his complicated life: â€Å"I wish I had a parka. † (Act 2, Scene 2) This quotation has importance as it shows that Abdul has accepted Sajit and his ways. It also shows that he would like to seek refuge just like Sajit and shows that he also is vulnerable like his brother. This is the first time that Abdul has shown any sort of understanding towards Sajits feelings. Another family conflict is shown when Abdul tries to explain to Tariq, his younger and rebellious brother, why he has never defied his father and let his father overpower him: â€Å"I want him to treat me like a proper son, I want him to trust me. I dont want him to feel as if Im some investment for his future. † (Act 2, Scene 2) Abdul is trying to explain to Tariq why he listens to his father and tries to respect him. This shows that Abdul is very reasonable and can see both points of views, from his and his siblings and his view and from his fathers. The world conflict in this scene forms a backdrop in the play. George feels strongly about Pakistan and the war as he has family near the borderline. Ella (his wife) on the other hand, does not really care about the war and is more concerned about life back home and her family: They only come around here when they want money, or when money wants sending to Pakistan, to buy more bleeding land that were not gonna live on. And do you think any of my kids are gonna get a look in, if owt happened to you? (Act 2, Scene 2) Ella is finally unleashing her feelings which she has bottled up for the course of her marriage with George. George is dumbfounded as he knows that it is truth, then when Ella says: â€Å"Im not gonna stand by and let you crush them one by one because of your pig bloody ignorance. † (Act 2, Scene 2) George upon hearing Ella apparently call him pig becomes angry. He is a volatile character and Ellas words trigger off his already heated temperament (Pork is forbidden in Islam, so he feels gravely insulted): â€Å"George grabs Ella violently by her hair and pulls her to the ground. We see Sajit crying in the yard. † (Act 2, Scene 2) The scene has come to a dramatic conclusion which has a lot of tension within it, from both the domestic violence and Abdul and Tariqs encounter. A lot of tension has developed in this scene and is building up to the climax. In Act 2, Scene 4 we see Abdul in another light. We see him confessing and repenting his actions from earlier. The atmosphere becomes very tense as Abdul delivers a very powerful speech which releases a lot of tension: â€Å"I just sat there and watched them, and I didnt belong, I was crying,  crying so hard I couldnt catch my breath. † (Act 2, Scene 4) After this strong comment, the stage directions amplify the atmosphere: â€Å"Pause. We can just hear the music playing in the background. † (Act 2, Scene 4) This is a dramatic part of the scene as Abdul has vented his feelings about his behavior all in one powerful release. The relevance of the music is important as it is background music which can clearly be heard as both Abdul and Tariq are silent, showing that it is a reminder of their culture and the rising tensions. This scene is important as it helps us understand the character of Abdul. We can see that he can understand the young and childish views of his youngest brother, and the serious views of Tariq. Throughout the play, tension and humor have entwined which has built up to the climax of the play in the final scene. In Act 2, Scene 5, the tension of the play has risen to the climax and everyone is rushing around for the arrival of the guests. There is tension in the air as they are waiting for the arrival of Mr. Shah (the father of Abdul and Tariqs brides to-be): â€Å"Ella is plaiting Meenahs hair. Sajit sits oblivious to all the confusion around him, reading a comic. † (Act 2, Scene 5) We can see that there is tension as everyone is scurrying about doing their own thing. Ella seems to be in control of the situation and is ordering everyone about: â€Å"ELLA: Keep it bloody still then. Sajit go upstairs and ask your Dad to give you the nit comb. † (Act 2, Scene 5) â€Å"ELLA: Hang on, I havent got two pairs of hands. Abdul! Fix Tariqs tie. (Pause. ) Wheres Saleem? † (Act 2, Scene 5) â€Å"ELLA: Sajit go upstairs and ask your dad to get me jeweler out of the safe. (As Sajit goes. ) And take that bleeding parka off! Abdul, get the posh cups out of the cabinet in the kitchen. † (Act 2, Scene 5) In all of these quotations, we see Ella sending the children off around the whole house to prepare before Mr. Shah arrives. Upon the arrival of the guest the tone changes and the family adopt a posh approach, which is an immediate contrast with their usual eccentric behavior: â€Å"Mr. Shah enters greeted by Ella. Ella leads him into the parlor, followed by the others, Sajit bringing up the rear trying to see. Ella has now got her slightly posh voice on. † (Act 2, Scene 5) Then Mr. Shah is introduced. We can tell that he holds very high standards as everyone greets him as he is introduced. Ella who is normally very informal has now become very posh as she is aware of the respect that Mr. Shah deserves. We can see that Ella does not seem to know what to say and when to say it: â€Å"Oh theyre quite heftya ¦the frames I mean! Look George, arent they lovely? † (Act 2, Scene 5) In this quotation we can see that Ella has spoken aloud her true opinion about the girls pictures, but hastily manages to recover. This is quite an obvious sign that Ella is not used to meeting those who are from the Pakistani background and is embedded in the English culture. There is tension in the air because; if one character makes a mistake then there will be serious consequences like Mr. Shah refusing to allow his daughters to marry into the family: â€Å"Enter Meenah with the tea, she sees the photos, she can barely control her laughter, this could be dangerous. She scuttles out of the room quick. † â€Å"MEENAH: Ill just go and get the biscuits. (She almost snorts this. )† (Act 2, Scene 5) The children also notice that the pictures are unsightly and can hardly control their laughter, just like their mother. This is funny but serious as we can understand the comedy of the circumstances but the seriousness of the situation. In this scene there are cross-cuts between the two actions at the same time. There is the formal type atmosphere in the parlor and the informal light hearted tone in the living room where the children are gathered. This is quite good as tension is increased as the two actions happen. When one scene occurs, the other pauses thus building tension between the two. There is comedy present as the children are joking about with Saleems model and on the other hand we have such a serious atmosphere: â€Å"Ella goes to grab the model, but Saleem gets there first. She begins to chase him round the room. † (Act 2, Scene 5) As the model is of something so explicit, it is entertaining to see the situation change to such an amusing one. Then it says: â€Å"We are aware of the commotion outside the parlor door. † SALEEM: (from outside). Mam let go, youre pulling all the hair out! (Act 2, Scene 5) These quotations show the situation from the other room and we can imagine what the guest and the family are thinking. The family is all seated and then suddenly: â€Å"Saleem falls through the door clutching the model. He lands in front of Mr. Shah. † (Act 2, Scene 5) The sudden entrance of Saleem has surprised the guest, and George too has finally lost patience with his own family. Even though something so embarrassing and detrimental has happened Ella uses humor which induces the tension building to the climax: â€Å"ELLA: Im very sorry Mr. Shah, it was an accident, the hair came off in me hands. † (Act 2, Scene 5) Mr. Shah has been a patient guest for the family, but he too finally loses it. He cannot believe he was about to wed his daughters into this crazy family: â€Å"This is an insult to me, and to my family! How can you allow your son to behave like this! I will never let my daughters marry into this jungly family of half-breeds! † (Act 2, Scene 5) This too is an insult to Ella who as explained before loves her own children. She cannot let this pass her so easily: â€Å"Well your daughters arent good enough for my sons or your house. And if I hear you say another word about my family, Ill put that fanny over your bastard head. † (Act 2, Scene 5) Once again Ella has defended her family and used humor to add more tension to the atmosphere. This speech is tough as Ella overrules George to shout at Mr. Shah. Mr. Shah exits feeling personally insulted, and then George loses it: â€Å"You baster bitch, you insulting guest, bring bloody shame on family. † (Act 2, Scene 5) He is more concerned about what others think of his family and is annoyed that Ella has insulted not just an ordinary guest, but a Pakistani respectable man. George is too irrational and cannot see any other side to it so: â€Å"George grabs Ella, and pushes her to the floor, he starts to hit her. † (Act 2, Scene 5) Now George is hitting Ella for the second time and the children, all except Sajit, have not seen this brutal attack before. They are stunned: â€Å"Saleem and Tariq run over to try and stop him, Manner grabs Ella and tries to pull her away. Sajit takes off his coat, runs over, and starts to hit George with it. † (Act 2, Scene 5) Abdul has taken control of the situation and is grabbing his father and holding him against the wall. He is acting on behalf of all of the children: â€Å"ABDUL: Dad! (He grabs George and pushes him against the wall. ) Get off her stop it. † (Act 2, Scene 5) Abdul has just done a very manly action by sizing up to his father and then pushing him away. His conflicts have arisen as he has previously had to atone and be a religious Muslim and then had to face this situation. Sajit has been silent throughout the previous action but suddenly has whipped off his parka and started whacking his dad with it. This is such a major change as the metaphor of his parka has changed i. e. the parka represented bottled up feelings and now it is being released. The action of reliving the scene of his father attacking his mother must have removed his fears. The following quotation has a strong message in it: â€Å"Sajit runs off to the shed crying. Pause. Theres just the sound of Ella crying. The others help her into a chair. † â€Å"George starts to cry. † â€Å"GEORGE: I only try to help you son, I no want to bloody hurt you, I love my family. I have to bloody stick up for family when people calling. † (Act 2, Scene 5) The pause in the stage directions is used to build suspense and create more tension. Then when George begins to cry we realize that he is not all bad. The previous examples of George that we have seen are those which show him in either a humorous or bad light, not in a sympathetic light. The fact that he is crying shows that he too is human and feels sad about his actions. His  speech states that he cares for his family, and has their best interests at heart. This is quite moving and is almost like a healing to all of the violence. It proves that he does care for his family after all. Then George leaves and Abdul goes to speak to Sajit, who has retired to the coal shed. Sajit too has released his anger and even tells Abdul it: â€Å"I was only hitting him cause he hit me mam. He always does it. He said he was gonna burn the house down. † (Act 2, Scene 5) Sajit has said something which echoes his inner feelings all along. He thought that his dad was going to burn his house down. Sajit has foolishly taken Georges previous threat from when he previously beat up Ella to heart. This shows that he may be dotty, but he does care. Once again, he opens up to Abdul: â€Å"I didnt half give him a belt didnt I? † (Act 2, Scene 5) Then Abdul asks if Sajit wants to keep his coat, but surprisingly Sajit doesnt. In the following quotation, we can see Sajit giving all his fears up and relieving all his stress. â€Å"Sajit takes the coat, goes over to the bin, lifts up the lid, takes one last look at his coat, and throws it in. † (Act 2, Scene 5). The fact that Sajit has taken a final look at the coat may mean that he is reflecting on all of the times that his coat was a haven for him away from all of the troubles that plagued him. After such a moving ending and tension humor is once again introduced, as Sajit says: â€Å"Can I have another look at our Saleems model? † (Act 2, Scene 5) This shows the final example where humor is used to reveal tensions and conflicts. The resolution of the play is one that the audience may not have expected and is quite fulfilling as it successfully concludes the conflicts between the characters. From my assignment, I can conclude that conflicts and tension are dramatically revealed through the use of humor. In many scenes, we can see this like Act 1, Scene1 and Act 2, Scene 5. The purpose of this play is portraying life as an Anglo-Pakistani in the 1970s. It highlights the difficulties and good times of being Asian. The reason that Ayub-Khan-Din wrote the play was because the play was a way to show others how his life was for a typical Pakistani family growing up, in his circumstances. The playwright has based the play around his life which made it more real and understandable. This play is very autobiographical as it shows certain aspects of his life and shows the struggles for Anglo-Pakistani families. The play seems humorous, and since I didn’t really know how bad problems can really be in an English-Pakistani family living in England, I thought they had exaggerated a lot. But later finding out that the play is autobiographical; it made me understand the theme a bit better. It made me look at the play very differently, and it was easier to value the atmosphere as it was based upon a true lifestyle.